Po redaktohet Illyrians (paragraf)

== History ==
{{For|Illyrian prehistory and the Bronze Age|Illyrians#Origins}}

=== Iron Age ===
[[File:Illyrians in the 7th-4th centuries BC.png|thumb|250px|right|Illyrian tribes in the 7th–4th centuries BCE.]]

Depending on the complexity of the diverse [[physical geography]] of the [[Balkans]], [[arable farming]] and [[livestock]] (mixed farming) rearing had constituted the economic basis of the Illyrians during the [[Iron Age]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

In southern [[Illyria]] organized realms were formed earlier than in other areas of this region. One of the oldest known Illyrian kingdoms is that of the [[Enchelei]], which seems to have reached its height from the 8th–7th centuries BC, but the kingdom fell from dominant power around the 6th century BC.{{sfn|Stipčević|1989|p=34}} It seems that the weakening of the kingdom of Enchelae resulted in their assimilation and inclusion into a newly established Illyrian realm at the latest in the 5th century BC, marking the arising of the [[Dassaretii]], who appear to have replaced the Enchelei in the lakeland area of [[Lake Ohrid|Lychnidus]].{{sfn|Šašel Kos|2004|p=500}}{{sfn|Castiglioni|2010|pp=93–95}} According to a number of modern scholars the dynasty of [[Bardylis]]—the first attested Illyrian dynasty—was Dassaretan.<ref>{{harvnb|Mortensen|1991|pp=49–59}}; {{harvnb|Cabanes|2002|pp=50–51, 56, 75}}; {{harvnb|Castiglioni|2010|p=58}}; {{harvnb|Lane Fox|2011|p=342}}; {{harvnb|Cambi|Čače|Kirigin|2002|p=106}}; {{harvnb|Mesihović|Šačić|2015|pp=129–130}}.</ref>{{Refn|There is also another historical reconstruction that considers Bardylis a [[Dardani]]an ruler, who during the expansion of his dominion included the region of Dassaretis in his realm, but this interpretation has been challenged by historians who consider Dardania too far north for the events involving the Illyrian king [[Bardylis]] and his dynasty.{{sfn|Cabanes|2002|pp=50–51, 56, 75}}{{sfn|Mortensen|1991|pp=49–59}}{{sfn|Lane Fox|2011|p=342}}|group=note}}

The weakening of the Enchelean realm was also caused by the strengthening of another Illyrian kingdom established in its vicinity—that of the [[Taulantii]]—which existed for some time along with that of the Enchelei.{{sfn|Stipčević|1989|p=35}} The Taulantii—another people among the more anciently known groups of Illyrian tribes—lived on the [[Adriatic]] coast of southern [[Illyria]] (modern [[Albania]]), dominating at various times much of the plain between the [[Drin (river)|Drin]] and the [[Aous]], comprising the area around [[Durres|Epidamnus/Dyrrhachium]].{{sfn|Wilkes|1992|pp=97–98}}{{Refn|When describing the Illyrian invasion of [[Macedon]]ia ruled by [[Argaeus I of Macedon|Argaeus I]], somewhere between 678 and 640 BC, the historian [[Polyaenus]] ({{fl}} 2nd-century CE) recorded the oldest known king in Illyria, [[Galaurus|Galaurus or Galabrus]], a ruler of the Taulantii who reigned in the latter part of the 7th century BC.  However, nothing guarantees the authenticity of Polyaenus' passage.{{sfn|Cabanes|2002|p=51}}|group=note}} In the 7th century BC the Taulantii invoked the aid of [[Corcyra]] and [[Corinth]] in a war against the [[Liburni]]. After the defeat and expulsion from the region of the Liburni, the Corcyreans founded in 627 BC on the Illyrian mainland a colony called ''Epidamnus'', thought to have been the name of a barbarian king of the region.{{sfn|Wilkes|1992|pp=110–111}} A flourishing commercial centre emerged and the city grew rapidly. The Taulantii continued to play an important role in Illyrian history between the 5th and 4th–3rd centuries BC, and in particular, in the history of Epidamnus, both as its neighbors and as part of its population. Notably they influenced the affairs in the internal conflicts between aristocrats and democrats.{{sfn|Wilkes|1992|p=112}}{{sfn|Mesihović|Šačić|2015|pp=39–40}} The Taulantian kingdom seems to have reached its climax during [[Glaukias]]' rule, in the years between 335 BC and 302 BC.{{sfn|Dzino|2014|p=49}}{{sfn|Wilkes|1992|pp=112, 122–126}}{{sfn|Stipčević|1989|pp=35–36}}

The [[Illyrian kingdoms]] frequently came into conflicts with the neighbouring [[Ancient Macedonians]], and the Illyrian pirates were also seen as significant threat to the neighbouring peoples.{{sfn|Polybius}}

At the [[Neretva Delta]], there was a strong [[Hellenistic]] influence on the Illyrian tribe of [[Daors]]. Their capital was [[Daorson]] located in ''Ošanići'' near [[Stolac]] in [[Herzegovina]], which became the main center of classical Illyrian culture. Daorson, during the 4th century BC, was surrounded by [[megalithic]], 5 meter high stonewalls, composed out of large trapeze stones blocks. Daors also made unique bronze [[coins]] and sculptures. The Illyrians even conquered [[Greek colonies]] on the Dalmatian islands.

After [[Philip II of Macedon]] defeated [[Bardylis]] (358 BC), the [[Grabaei]] under [[Grabos II]] became the strongest state in Illyria.{{sfn|Hammond|1994|p=438}} Philip II killed 7,000 Illyrians in a great victory and annexed the territory up to [[Lake Ohrid]]. Next, Philip II reduced the Grabaei, and then went for the [[Ardiaei]], defeated the [[Triballi]] (339 BC), and fought with [[Pleurias]] (337 BC).{{sfn|Hammond|1993|pp=106–107}}

[[File:Queen_Teuta_orders_the_murder_of_Roman_ambassadors.jpg|thumb|left|[[Queen Teuta]] of the [[Ardiaei|Ardieai]] orders the Roman ambassadors to be killed – painted by [[Augustyn Mirys]]]]
During the second part of the 3rd century BC, a number of Illyrian tribes seem to have united to form a [[proto-state]] stretching from the central part of present-day Albania up to [[Neretva|Neretva river]] in [[Herzegovina]]. The political entity was financed on piracy and ruled from 250 BC by the king [[Agron of Illyria|Agron]]. The Illyrian attack under Agron, against Aerolians mounted in either 232 or 231 BC, is described by Polybius:

{{blockquote|One hundred lembi with 5000 men on board sailed up to land at Medion. Dropping anchor at daybreak, they disembarked speedily and in secret. They then formed up in the order that was usual in their own country, and advanced in their several companies against the [[Aetolian]] lines. The latter were overwhelmed with astonishment at the unexpected nature and boldness of the move; but they had long been inspired with overweening self-confidence, and having full reliance on their own forces were far from being dismayed. They drew up the greater part of their [[hoplites]] and cavalry in front of their own lines on the level ground, and with a portion of their cavalry and their light [[infantry]] they hastened to occupy some rising ground in front of their camp, which nature had made easily defensible. A single charge, however, of the Illyrians, whose numbers and close order gave them irresistible weight, served to dislodge the light-armed troops, and forced the cavalry who were on the ground with them to retire to the hoplites. But the Illyrians, being on higher ground, and charging down on from it upon the Aetolian trrops formed up on the plain, routed them without difficulty. The Medionians joined the action by sallying out of the town and charging the Aetolians, thus, after killing a great number, and taking a still greater number prisoners, and becoming masters also of their arms and baggage, the Illyrians, having carried out the orders of Agron, conveyed their baggage and the rest of their booty to their boats and immediately set sail for their own country.<ref>Polybius 2.3</ref>}}
He was succeeded by his wife [[Teuta]], who assumed the [[Regent|regency]] for her stepson [[Pinnes (Ardiaean)|Pinnes]] following Agron's death in 231 BC.{{Sfn|Elsie|2015|p=3}}

In his work ''[[The Histories (Polybius)|The Histories]]'', [[Polybius]] (2nd century BC) reported first diplomatic contacts between the Romans and Illyrians.{{sfn|Bajrić|2014|p=29}} In the [[Illyrian Wars]] of 229 BC, 219 BC and 168 BC, [[Roman Republic|Rome]] overran the Illyrian settlements and suppressed the [[piracy]] that had made the [[Adriatic]] unsafe for Roman commerce.<ref name="Wilkes 1995 158">{{harvnb|Wilkes|1992|p=158}}.</ref> There were three [[Military campaign|campaigns]], the first against [[Queen Teuta|Teuta]] the second against [[Demetrius of Pharos]] and the third against [[Gentius]].<ref>{{harvnb|Boak|Sinnigen|1977|p=111}}.</ref> The initial campaign in 229 BC marks the first time that the [[Roman Navy]] crossed the Adriatic Sea to launch an invasion.<ref>{{harvnb|Gruen|1986|p=76}}.</ref>
The impetus behind the emergence of larger regional groups, such as "Iapodes", "Liburnians", "Pannonians" etc., is traced to increased contacts with the Mediterranean and [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] 'global worlds'.{{sfn|Dzino|2012|pp=74-76}} This catalyzed "the development of more complex political institutions and the increase in differences between individual communities".{{sfn|Dzino|2012|p=97}} Emerging local elites selectively adopted either La Tène or Hellenistic and, later, Roman cultural templates "in order to legitimize and strengthen domination within their communities. They were competing fiercely through either alliance or conflict and resistance to Roman expansion. Thus, they established more complex political alliances, which convinced (Greco-Roman) sources to see them as ‘ethnic’ identities."{{sfn|Dzino|2012|pp=84-85}}

The [[Roman Republic]] subdued the Illyrians during the 2nd century BC. An [[Illyrian revolt]] was crushed under [[Augustus]], resulting in the division of Illyria in the provinces of [[Pannonia]] in the north and [[Dalmatia]] in the south. {{citation needed|date=April 2014}} Depictions of the Illyrians, usually described as "barbarians" or "savages", are universally negative in Greek and Roman sources.<ref name="Wilkes4"/>

=== Roman era and Late Antiquity ===
{{Main|Illyrian Wars}}
{{Further|Illyricum (Roman province)|Dalmatia|Moesia|l1=Roman provinces of Illyricum}}

Prior to the [[Roman Empire#Punic Wars and expansion in the Mediterranean (264–146 BC)|Roman conquest]] of [[Illyria]], the [[Roman Republic]] had started expanding its power and territory across the [[Adriatic Sea]]. The Romans came nevertheless into a series of conflicts with the Illyrians, equally known as the [[Illyrian Wars]], beginning in 229 BC until 168 BC as the Romans defeated [[Gentius]] at [[Scodra]].<ref>Battles of the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Chronological Compendium of 667 Battles to 31Bc, from the Historians of the Ancient World (Greenhill Historic Series) by John Drogo Montagu, {{ISBN|1-85367-389-7}}, 2000, page 47</ref> The [[Bellum Batonianum|Great Illyrian Uprising]] took place in the Roman province of Illyricum in the 1st century AD, in which an alliance of native peoples revolted against the Romans. The main ancient source that describes this military conflict is [[Velleius Paterculus]], which was incorporated into the second book of ''Roman History''. Another ancient source about it is the biography of Octavius [[Augustus]] by [[Pliny the Elder]].{{sfn|Mesihović|2011|pp=8, 15}} The two leaders of uprising were [[Bato the Breucian]] and [[Bato the Daesitiate]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

Geographically, the name 'Illyria' came to mean Roman ''Illyricum'' which from the 4th century to the 7th century signified the [[prefecture of Illyricum]]. It covered much of the western and central Balkans. After the defeat of the Great Illyrian Revolt and the consolidation of Roman power in the Balkans, the process of integration of Illyrians in the Roman world accelerated even further. Some Illyrian communities were organized in their pre-Roman locations under their own ''[[civitates]]''. Others migrated or were forcefully resettled in different regions. Some groups like the [[Azali (tribe)|Azali]] were transferred from their homeland to frontier areas (northern Hungary) after the Great Illyrian Revolt. In [[Dacia]], Illyrian communities like the [[Pirustae]] who were skilled miners were settled to the gold mines of [[Alburnus Maior]] where they formed their own communities. In [[Trajan]]'s period these population movements were likely part of a deliberate policy of resettling, while later they involved free migrations. In their new regions, they were free salaried workers. Inscriptions show that by that era many of Illyrians had acquired Roman citizenship.{{sfn|Holleran|2016|p=103}}

By the end of the 2nd century and beginning of the  3rd century CE, Illyrian populations had been highly integrated in the Roman Empire and formed a core population of its Balkan provinces. During the [[crisis of the Third Century]] and the establishment of the [[Dominate]], a new elite faction of Illyrians who were part of the Roman army along the [[Pannonian Limes|Pannonian]] and [[Danubian Limes]] rose in Roman politics. This faction produced many emperors from the late 3rd to the 6th century CE who are collectively known as the [[Illyrian Emperors]] and include the [[Constantinian dynasty|Constantinian]], [[Valentinianic dynasty|Valentinianic]] and [[Justinian Dynasty|Justinianic]] dynasties.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Noel |last1=Lenski |title=Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century A.D. |publisher=Univ of California Press, 2014 |isbn=9780520283893 |pages=45–67 |language=en|date=2014-06-26 }}</ref><ref name="Constantine the Great">{{cite book|last1=Odahl|first1=Charles M.|title=Constantine and the Christian empire|date=2001|publisher=[[Routledge]]|location=London|isbn=978-0-415-17485-5|pages=40–41|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=770uCgAAQBAJ&q=constantine%20illyrian&pg=PA40}}</ref><ref name="Valentinian I">{{cite book|last=Lenski|first=Noel Emmanuel|title=Failure of empire: Valens and the Roman state in the fourth century A.D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uvXo39xOV8kC&pg=PA56|access-date=12 October 2010|year=2002|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-23332-4|page=56}}</ref><ref name="Anastasius I Dicorus">{{cite book|last=Croke|first=Brian|title=Count Marcellinus and his chronicle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ep6U-meRt00C&pg=PA89|access-date=12 October 2010|year=2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-815001-5|page=89}}</ref><ref name="Justinian I">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9AvjaThtrKYC&q=Justinian++latin-speaking+Illyrians&pg=PA74 |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian|publisher=Cambridge University Press|first=Michael |last=Maas |date=2005|isbn=978-1139826877}}</ref> [[Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius]] , a native of [[Sirmium]], is usually recognized as the first Illyrian emperor in historiography.<ref name="Bohec">{{cite book|last1=Bohec|first1=Yann Le|title=The Imperial Roman Army |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IFWSAgAAQBAJ |page=83 |date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135955069}}</ref> The rise of the Illyrian Emperors represents the rise of the role of the army in imperial politics and the increasing shift of the center of imperial politics from the city of Rome itself to the eastern provinces of the empire.

The term ''Illyrians'' last appears in the historical record in the 7th century AD, in the  ''[[Miracula Sancti Demetrii]]'', referring to a [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] garrison operating within the former [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Roman province of Illyricum]].<ref name="Schaefer2008"/><ref>{{harvnb|Juka|1984|p=60}}: "Since the Illyrians are referred to for the last time as an ethnic group in Miracula Sancti Demetri (7th century AD), some scholars maintain that after the arrival of the Slavs the Illyrians were extinct."</ref> However, in the acts of the [[Second Council of Nicaea]] from 787, Nikephoros of Durrës signed himself as "Episcopus of Durrës, province of the Illyrians".<ref>Meksi, Aleksandër (1989) [https://www.persee.fr/doc/iliri_1727-2548_1989_num_19_1_1516 Të dhëna për historinë e hershme mesjetare të Shqipërisë (fundi i shek. VI — fillimi i shek. XI)], / Données sur l'histoire médiévale ancienne de l'Albanie Iliria  Année 1989, 19-1, p. 120</ref> Since the Middle Ages the term "Illyrian" has been used principally in connection with the [[Albanians]], although it was also used to describe the western wing of the [[Southern Slavs]] up to the 19th century,{{sfn|Ćirković|2004|p=2|ps=: "The name Illyrian was used to identify the western wing of the Southern Slavs up to the nineteenth century, although since the Middle Ages it has been used primarily in connection with the Albanians."}} being revived in particular during the [[Habsburg monarchy]].{{Sfn|Djilas|1991|p=|pp=20–21}}{{Sfn|Stergar|2016|pp=111–112}} In Byzantine literature, references to Illyria as a defined region in administrative terms end after 1204 and the term specifically began to refer only to the more confined Albanian territory.{{sfn|Koder|2017|p=206}}